Science and Faith: Greening Collaboration?

Christians have been relatively quiet about environmental problems, but this is changing (Joranson and Butigan 1984). Catholics have actually been addressing environmental issues for several years. Caldecott (1996) refers to the Green Pope and the scriptural basis for environmental conservation. The Catholic Catechism includes a section on creation and responsible care for the environment. Anderson, Slovic, and O’Grady (1999) include an essay entitled "U.S. Bishops" where religious leaders address environmental concerns. However, politics predominates many discussions as environmental radicals and the media supply a healthy mix of misinformation, exaggerations, and biased views along with scientific data (Sanera and Shaw 1996 & 1997, Lichter and Rothman 1999, Wallace and Christy 2000).

However, science and faith are beginning to share more and more over this issue, yet significant disagreement over fundamental definitions remain. For example, Bunk (1999) claims that faith is not evidence-based but the Bible paints another picture. He also states that science deals with what is knowable where as religion involves that which is unknowable. Once again, according to the Bible, God is knowable and a personal relationship with the God of the universe is possible, even necessary if one is to experience eternal life.

In spite of these fundamental differences, church leaders and scientists are beginning to share the platform with one another as allies instead of adversaries. This collaborative relationship makes some uneasy, but it reflects an important new direction as we face the 21^st Century. Web pages, sermons, Bible study groups, and environmental cleanup projects discussing cooperation between former foes are bound to make the headlines (Climate Change II: Plea from the Pulpit 1999, Columbia River Pastoral Letter Project 1999, Lampman 2000, Lowy 2000, Savoye 2000).

The common thread among the different faith groups that have gotten involved with environmental conservation projects is the belief that the God of the Bible cares about the environment and holds people accountable for its sustained management. The Bible serves as the guidebook for Christian conduct and, if followed, will have a positive impact on the environment. Surprisingly, the human conduct that benefits the environment the most, relates less to direct interaction between people and the world around them and more with how people relate to God and one another. In other words, environmental improvements are a natural consequence when people are rightly related to God and one another. This constitutes an environmental prescription for change as the next millennium dawns.

Christianity’s Consistent Contributions

In light of the fact that genuine Christians and Christianity have contributed so much that has benefited society over the past 2000 years, it is quite reasonable to expect no less when it comes to finding solutions to our environmental problems. Christianity’s contributions to the world of music have been extensive (Kavanaugh 1996). In America alone, the Bay Psalm Book became the first book of any kind published in the Colonies. Additionally, in 1838 Christian music was taught in Boston's public schools "in preparation for making the praise of God glorious in families and churches" (Reynolds 1963). Christianity's contributions to science and literacy merit made additional comment (Jeffrey 1999 and Livingstone 1999).

Christian contributions to science include such diverse fields as natural history, chronology, geography, cosmology, physics, and biochemistry by men and women throughout the ages, including the Venerable Bede, John Ray, Sir Isaac Newton, Michael Behe, and J.C. Polkinghorne, among many others (Stevens 1985, Eckenrode 1971 & 1976, Behe 1998, Polkinghorne 1996). The environment too has benefited from Christianity's influence, despite claims to the contrary. According to Armstrong (1973), environmental care and concern has been widespread among Christians for centuries, from the time of Christ to the time of Saint Francis. The impact of Christianity upon Society through literacy and education is particularly noteworthy and partially illustrated with the following table.

Exemplary Excerpts

Nine excerpts, representing each of the topics presented in appendices A and B, are presented to illustrate what the Bible has to say to us today relevant to environmental conservation. Each section will be designated as either a major or minor theme based on the number of books of the Bible from which verses were compiled. Verses from the Old and New Testaments are displayed in each table, along with a representative section of a hymn from Appendix D. The nine topical designations are: 1) Creation, 2) Stewardship, 3) Provision, 4) Pleasure, 5) Praise, 6) Power, 7) Witness, 8) Consequences, and 9) Perspective. A tenth section concludes appendices A and B, each with a handful of miscellaneous verses, which do not fit well in any of the nine categories presented.

Section One

Creation deals with the creative nature and activity of God. This is a major theme of the environmentally relevant verses found in Scripture, (29 books of the Bible). It is a consistent theme from Genesis to Revelation and is accepted by extra-biblical writers as well (Lactantius 304 or 305, Catechism of the Catholic Church 1994).

The Bible records that God created everything from nothing, simply by speaking it into existence. Father, Son, and Holy Spirit are each mentioned in the creation account and God's creative activity is understood to be ongoing. Just as this is a consistent theme, throughout the Bible, is also frequently mentioned in sacred song.

Section Two

Stewardship though not a major theme of Scripture, included in only 19 books, this is one of the more hotly contested topics discussed today (White 1967). However, it is not my desire to reinvent the wheel by continuing the debate. This issue has been dealt with very effectively by Harrison (1999) and others. A couple of comments are appropriate, however. White asks, "What did Christianity tell people about their relations with the environment?" His answers were not derived from the Bible. This led to a number of false conclusions, e.g. "nature has no reason to exist save to serve man." The Bible paints an entirely different picture. Nature belongs to God and exists for His pleasure, not men. It is interesting to note that White capitulates the real solution to our environmental problems to religion rather than to science. Is this to set up Christianity for additional blame if the environment fails to improve? Based upon the tone of Whites remarks, one can only wonder. White is not the only one to link our contemporary attitudes toward the environment with Christianity. Nash (1967) attributed the ancient biblical view of wilderness as the basis for our modern view.

How does religion influence a person’s attitude or behavior toward the environment? Is their any psychological evidence linking our environmental behavior with religious beliefs? Numerous studies have examined the issue and the results are consistent: Religion does not foster negative environmental behavior. In a few cases, it actually helps (Stern 1992, Wolven 1991, Lutzenhiser 1993, Winett and Ester 1983, Stern and Dietz 1994, Eckberg and Blocker 1996). Perhaps, religion that makes no difference could be considered negative since, at least some formal religious education programs teach that we are charged with the responsible management of God’s creation. (Caldecott, 1996).

Stewardship includes verses related to the relationship between people and the environment, including the fact that God owns the earth and people are merely charged with caring for it. Caring for the environment involves management for sustainable yields and balancing work with rest. This section also addresses caring for the needs of one another based upon the principles of God's economy. Relatively little church music has been devoted to this topic.

Section Three
Provision is a major theme, included in 28 books of the Bible. God’s people expect God to provide for their needs, all of them. God also does something unexpected, He provides for the needs of those who hate Him just as He provides for the needs of those who love Him. In so doing, He demonstrates that people too, are to love their enemies.

Section three sheds some light on the purpose of the environment, that of provision. This is, of course not the only purpose of nature, but it is an important one. Verses here relate to the relationship between the environment and people where nature meets our needs for food, clothing, shelter, etc. Included here is the idea of contentment, trusting God to meet our needs. This is a common theme in church music around Thanksgiving, though acknowledgments of Gods blessings are sung throughout the year.

Section Four
Pleasure presents another purpose fort he environment. Though a minor theme, based on the number of books, which include this concept (17), it is nonetheless, a critically important principle that God takes pleasure in what He has made. Nature is first for God, for His pleasure and praise. It is not something just for us. After all, we are created beings too and our purpose is no different, to please God.

Section four includes verses related to the relationship between God and the environment as well as how the various elements of the environment relate to each other. God demonstrates His care and concern for the natural environment and we find that God takes pleasure in what He has created in its natural state, not modified with "human improvements." Christ's example of personal refreshment through time spent in the wilderness is illustrated here.

In his book, The Wisdom of God, John Ray concludes our creator delights in the beauty of His creation (Raven 1950). Dandi (1995) offers this biblical teaching to children indicating that creation (animals) are not for human exploitation. Selfishly exploiting that which God takes pleasure in, is inconsistent Christian behavior. This children’s book encourages young people to care for and simply enjoy all of God’s creation as He does. Soll (1991) and Austin (1988) tie together God’s plan of salvation with His love for the non-human elements of His creation based on a passage of the New Testament found in the eighth chapter of Romans. Here creation is described as groaning in anticipation of its final redemption with fallen mankind. Like section two, few church songs may be found which illustrate this topic.

Section Five

Praise unlike sections two and four, offers a greater selection of sacred songs from which to choose than any other single category. However, this purpose of nature, to praise its Creator, is a minor theme, found in only 17 books. As one might expect, many of the verses are found in the Bible book of songs and celebrations, Psalms.

Verses in section 5 relate to the relationship between the environment and God where elements of creation express praise. Nature worships God rather than being worshipped as a god. God is clearly portrayed as preeminent in creation and He alone is to be worshipped. Included here are two of the Ten Commandments.

Section Six

Power is a major biblical theme in relationship to verses about the environment. Thirty books include this topic.

Section six involves authority. As Creator, God has authority over His creation. This is expressed as power and control over the laws of nature. Creation actually "melts" under the awesome power of God and several events recorded as miracles are located in this section. Creation reveals that the wisdom of God is far above any of the elements of creation, including human beings.

Section Seven

Witness is a minor theme for the Bible as a whole (21 books) but constitutes the largest single section of New Testament verses on the environment. Frequently, when verses that might otherwise have been classified as belonging in section six, clearly stated that the event was to bear witness of the presence of God, they were placed here instead.

Harrison (1999) discusses this point when he says, "nature … was to be known in order to determine its moral and spiritual meanings and not so that it might be materially exploited." Joranson and Butigan (1984) help us to understand St. Francis more clearly than White (1967) with respect to what motivated St. Francis. His respect and appreciation for creation was so profound because it always led him to the Creator. Keynes (1951) conveys what John Ray concluded as he studied the natural sciences. In The Wisdom of God, Ray wrote that he could see in nature evidences of innumerable proofs of an omnipotent Creator.

While nature may constitute a "book" which is fascinating to read, God as the author of the book, is far more interesting. Nature merely serves to reveal something about its author. Several of the parables of Christ illustrate here how the every-day aspects of nature teach us something about God. The spiritual lessons taught by nature are among the most profound.

Section Eight

Consequences is a major theme of the Bible, especially in the Old Testament (33 books). Verses here relate to the environmental consequences of human behavior. This includes verses where the environment suffers as a consequence of war. Additionally, environmental metaphors are used to describe the fate of the ungodly and where nature is called as a witness against the people of God. It's not all negative, however. Occasionally, Scripture reveals that the consequence of a growing relationship with God is an environmental blessing.

Morality is frequently mentioned in discussions involving environmental abuses (Caldecott, 1996). According to the Bible, reckless environmental damage is immoral but more importantly, immorality in any area, such as being out of fellowship with God, leads to the worst and most widespread environmental damage. Therefore, the biblical prescription for a healthier environment in the 21^st Century includes loving God with all your being and loving others as yourself. The natural consequences will include a healthier environment. This is not to say that we need not bother with recycling, carpooling, energy conservation, managing natural resources for sustained yields, etc. All of these things may be important but according to the Bible, they are futile apart from first having a right relationship with the Creator of the universe.

The Bible does not present an environmental agenda such as the many found elsewhere. The World Resources Institute (1999a) focuses on maintaining or restoring ecosystem functions. Later, World Resources Institute (1999b) includes population, food shortages, over consumption, energy use, ozone depletion, nutrient cycles, acid rain, deforestation, biodiversity loss, and water consumption. Birnie and Boyle (1995) simplify things suggesting the need to respect nature, protect biodiversity, and exercise sustainable productivity. The Worldwatch Institute (2000) includes climate modification and population control on its agenda for the 21^st Century.

Other environmental agendas focus on ecosystem dysfunction, climate concerns, water, environmental activists promoting social change, and having a global view (MSNBC 2000). The United Nations (1999) is concerned about sustainable development, clean air, and mentions linking environmental protection with education, human health, and employment. Christians have not been silent when it comes to proposing environmental agendas. Bube (1994) suggests a model limited to two elements creation and stewardship. The Evangelical Environmental Network (1999) have established a Declaration on the Care of Creation which acknowledges that the earth is the Lord’s.

So if God were exalted to His right place in our lives how would the environment look? Consider this table of contrasting views, as it sheds some light on this question.

Contrasting Environments

A right relationship with God leads to a right relationship among the elements of creation, people with other people, and between people and the environment.

Section Nine

Perspective is a minor theme (21 books) which seeks to put the relationships between God, people, and the environment in balance. These verses relate to the relationship between people and the environment with an emphasis on the fact that, though people are part of the natural scheme of things, people have priority. In other words, the needs of people take precedence or are considered more important than the needs of the natural elements of the environment, such as animals. This is not to say that the Bible condones such behavior as cruelty to animals, but it does suggest that animal rights are secondary to human rights. This includes the observation that the manner in which people relate to one another is different than the way people relate to animals. In relationship to God, nature is seen as smaller than God and of a lesser magnitude than its Creator.

Nature as a mystic object of worship is common to many cultures, ancient as well as modern but the Bible condemns such practice as idolatrous (Anderson, Slovic, and O’Grady 1999). This section includes Scripture which reveals how nature, ultimately fails to fulfill a person's deeper needs. Solomon discusses this concept at length in Ecclesiastes. Augustine (1996) shares the same sentiment. While St. Francis is depicted by some as a nature mystic who puts creation ahead of Christ (White 1967), Joranson and Butigan (1984) help to clarify this picture of St. Francis as one totally committed to the Lord, not the land. It is a short step from saying "God is everywhere" to making "everywhere" your god. The very creation that is designed to help us know Him can cause us to forget Him (Whaley 1976). A Christian with a biblical perspective on the environment will seek God first, not people (Bonacci 1999) and not the environment. With God on the throne, all the other elements of a persons life will assume a correct balance which will result in a healthier person and a healthier environment.

References

1. Anderson, Lorraine, Scott Slovic, and John P. O’Grady (eds.) (1999). Reader on nature and Literature and the environment: a culture. New York: Addison Wesley Longman Inc.
2. Armstrong, Edward A. (1973). Saint Francis: nature mystic, the derivation and significance of the nature stories in the Franciscan legend. Berkeley: University of California Press.
3. Augustine, Saint. (1996). The confessions of Saint Augustine. Springdale, PA: Whitaker House.
4. Austin, Richard Cartwright. (1988). Hope for the land – nature in the Bible. Atlanta, GA: John Knox Press.
5. Behe, Michael J. (1998). Darwin's black box: the biochemical challenge to evolution. New York: Touchstone.
6. The Bible Gateway. (2000). Online. Retrieved 5 April 2000: <http://bible.gospelcom.net/bible?version=KJV&passage=all>.
7. Biller, Peter and Anne Hudson (eds.). (1994). Heresy and literacy 1000-1530. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
8. Birnie, P.W. and A. E. Boyle. (1995). Basic documents on international law and the environment. Oxford: Clarendon Press.
9. Bonacci, Mary Beth. (1999). Be a Christian environmentalist. Online.  Retrieved 10 December 1999: <http://www.ewtn.com/library/YOUTH/CHENVIR.TXT> .
10. Boulton, Greg. (1995). Morality, literacy, and rhetoric: historical transitions in Christian communication. Thesis, Emmanuel School of Religion, Johnson City, TN.
11. Bowman, Alan K. and Greg Woolf. (eds.). (1994). Literacy and power in the ancient world. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
12. Brooks, Jeffrey. (1985). When Russia learned to read: literacy and popular culture 1861-1917. Princeton: Princeton University Press.
13. Brown, Robert K. and Mark R. Norton (eds.)  (1995). The one year book of hymns. Wheaton, IL: Tyndale House Publishers, Inc.
14. Bube, Richard H. (1994). Do biblical models need to be replaced in order to deal effectively with environmental issues? Online.  Retrieved 16 January 2000: <http://asa.calvin.edu/ASA/PSCF/1994/PSCF6-94Bube.html>.
15. Bunk, Steve. (1999). Is science religious? Why do these often opposing pursuits engender similar emotions? The Scientist 13(1999): Online.  Retrieved 9 November 1999:
    <http://www.the-scientist.library.upenn.edu/yr1999/nov/bunk_p10_991108.html>.
16. Caldecott, Stratford. (1996). Second spring. Online.  Retrieved 10 December 1999: <http://www.ewtn.com/>.
17. Catechism of the Catholic Church. (1994). Liguori, MO: Liguori Publications.
18. Christianity in America.  (1995). The Futurist 29(July/August): 55-56.
19. Climate change II: plea from the pulpit. (1999). Online.  Retrieved 27 April 2000: <http://www.loe.org/archives/991022.htm#feature7>.
20. Cohen, Margot, et al. (1994). Environment in Asia. Far Eastern Economic Review 157(17): 43-44+.
21. Columbia River Pastoral Letter Project. (1999). Online.  Retrieved 26 April 2000: <http://www.columbiariver.org/index.html>.
22. Dandi. (1995). God made the animals. Ashland, OH: Landoll, Inc.
23. Eckberg, Douglas Lee and T. Jean Blocker. Christianity, environmentalism, and the theoretical problem of fundamentalism. Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion 35(4): 343-355.
24. Eckenrode, Thomas R. (1971). Venerable Bede as a scientist. The American Benedictine Review 22: 486-507.
25. Eckenrode, Thomas R. (1976). The growth of a scientific mind: Bede’s early and late scientific writings. Downside Review 316: 197-212.
26. EnviroLink News Service (2000). Iran shuts Tehran schools due to smog. Online.  Retrieved 5 January 2000: <http://www.envirolink.org/environews/archives.html>.
27. EnviroLink News Service (2000). Interview: scientist says Asia threatens ozone layer. Online.  Retrieved 24 January 2000:  <http://www.envirolink.org/environews/archives.html>. 
28. EnviroLink News Service (2000). India faces environmental nightmare-study. Online.  Retrieved 26 April 2000:  <http://www.envirolink.org/environews/archives.html>.
29. EnviroLink News Service (2000). Indonesia seeks cash bailout to save its forests. Online.  Retrieved 26 April 2000: <http://www.envirolink.org/environews/archives.html>.
30. EnviroLink News Service (2000). Kenya’s flamingos dying in droves. Online.  Retrieved 7 March 2000: <http://www.envirolink.org/environews/archives.html>.
31. EnviroLink News Service (2000). Clinton awed by Taj Mahal, dismayed by pollution. Online.  Retrieved 26 April 2000: <http://www.envirolink.org/environews/archives.html>. 
32. Evangelical Environmental Network. (1999). An evangelical declaration on the care of creation. Online.  Retrieved 26 April 2000: <http://homepages.tcp.co.uk/~carling/een/declarat.htm>.
33. Foxe, John. (1981). Foxe’s book of martyrs (originally published in 1563). Springdale, PA: Whitaker House.
34. Fraser, James H. (1969). Indian mission printing in Arizona: a historical sketch and bibliography. Journal of Arizona History  11(2) : 67-68.
35. Gamble, Harry T. (1995). Books and readers in the early church - a history of early Christian texts. New Haven: Yale University Press.
36. Gelernter, David. (1997). The immorality of radical environmentalism: Protecting nature is a good thing, but there’s something wrong when rats are valued more than humans. Citizen 11(2): 1-4.
37. Glenn, Norval D. (1990). The society: from communalism to individualism. Public Perspective 1(4): 3-4.
38. Gordon, Norma S. (1961). Thomas Bray: a study in early Eighteenth Century librarianship. Thesis, Graduate School of Arts and Sciences, Catholic University of America, Washington, DC.
39. Graff, Harvey J. (1987). The legacies of literacy - continuities and contradictions in Western culture and society. Indianapolis: Indiana University Press.
40. Gros, Xavier E. (1999). Let’s pollute: a tribute to Japan’s disregard for the environment. Electronic Green Journal 11(December). Online.  Retrieved 26 April 2000: <http://egj.lib.uidaho.edu/egj11/gros1.html> .
41. Harrison, Peter. (1999). Subduing the earth: Genesis 1, early modern science, and the exploitation of nature. The Journal of Religion 79(1): 86.
42. Jeffrey, David Lyle. (1999). The gift of literacy, IN: David Neff (ed.) Where would civilization be without Christianity? Christianity Toady 43(14): 54-56.
43. Joranson, Philip N. and Ken Butigan (eds.). (1984). Cry of the environment: rebuilding the Christian creation tradition. Santa Fe, NM: Bear & Company.
44. Juhasz, Ferenc. (1992). Environmental policies in Turkey. OECD Observer (August/September): 29-32.
45. Kavanaugh, Patrick. (1996). Spiritual lives of the great composers. Grand Rapids, MI: Zondervan.
46. Keynes, Geoffrey. (1951). John Ray: a bibliography. London: Faber and Faber.
47. Kriz, Margaret. (1997). Choking on success: the downside to China’s economic boom is dirty air and polluted rivers. National Journal 29(15): 512-513.
48. Lactantius. (304 or 305). On the workmanship of God. Online.  Retrieved 26 April 2000: <http://www.newadvent.org/fathers/0704.htm>.
49. Lampman, Jane. (2000). The greening of religion. Online.  Retrieved 26 April 2000: <http://www.csmonitor.com/durable/2000/02/17/p14s1.htm>.
50. Lichter, S. Robert and Stanley Rothman. (1999). Environmental cancer, a political disease. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press.
51. Livingstone, David N. (1999). The gift of science, IN: David Neff (ed.) Where would civilization be without Christianity? Christianity Toady 43(14): 52-54.
52. Lowy, Joan. (2000). Environmentalism increasingly intermingled with religion. Online.  Retrieved 4 February 2000: <http://www.nandotimes.com>.
53. Lutzenhiser, Loren. (1993). Social and behavioral aspects of energy use. Annual Review of Energy and the Environment 18:247-289.
54. Marrou, H.I. (1956). A history of education in antiquity. Translated by George Lamb. Madison: University of Wisconsin Press.
55. Mercer, Malcolm. (1996). Schooling the poorer child - elementary education in Sheffield 1560-1902. Sheffield: Sheffield Academic Press.
56. MSNBC. (2000). Eco-agenda for the 21^st Century. Online.  Retrieved 10 January 2000; <http://msnbc.com/>.
57. Nash, Roderick. (1967). Wilderness and the American mind (revised edition). New Haven, CT: Yale University Press.
58. North American scene: religion in school. (1987). Christianity Today 31 (1): 52.
59. The Open Bible. (1975). Nashville, TN: Thomas Nelson Inc. Publishers.
60. Osbeck, Kenneth W. (1990). Amazing grace: 366 inspiring hymn stories for daily devotions. Grand Rapids, MI: Kregel Publications.
61. Owens, Irene. (1985-86). The importance of the library within the black local church. The Journal of Religious Thought 42(Fall/Winter): 66.
62. Polkinghorne, J. C. (1996). Quarks, chaos & Christianity: questions to science and religion. New York: Crossroad.
63. Raven, Charles E. (1950). John Ray naturalist: his life and works. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
64. Reynolds, William J. (1963). A survey of Christian hymnody. New York: Holt, Rinehart, and Winston Inc.
65. Sanera, Michael and Jane S. Shaw. (1996). Facts, not fear: a parent’s guide to teaching children about the environment. Washington, DC: Regenery Publishing Inc.
66. Sanera, Michael and Jane S. Shaw. (1997). Environmental exaggeration - What’s a teacher to do? Teacher in Focus July/August: 4-8.
67. Savoye, Craig. (2000). Whose science? State reviews of classroom science requirements are prompting further debate about ‘creation science’ vs. Evolution. Christian Science Monitor Tuesday, February 8, 2000 Online.  Retrieved  10 February 2000: <http://www.csmonitor.com/>.
68. Soll, Will M. (1991). Let the fields rejoice – Biblical meditations on nature. Nashville, TN: Discipleship Resources.
69. Stafford, Tim. (1986). Opening the closed book. Christianity Today 30(4): 25-28.
70. Stern, Paul C. (1992). Psychological dimensions of global environmental change. Annual Review of Psychology 43: 269-302.
71. Stern, Paul C. and Thomas Dietz. (1994). The value basis of environmental concern. Journal of Social Issues 50(3): 65-84.
72. Stevens, Wesley M. (1985). Bede’s scientific achievement. Jarrow, Durham : St. Paul's Church.
73. United Nations Environment Programme. (1999). Global environmental outlook 1. Online.  Retrieved 26 April 2000: <http://www.unep.org/>.
74. Wallace, John M. and John R. Christy. (2000). The truth about global warming. Online.  Retrieved 26 April 2000: <http://www.biomednet.com/hmsbeagle/72/viewpts/op_ed> .
75. Whaley, Harold (compiler). God is everywhere, Inspiring writings that reveal nearness. Kansas City, MO: Hallmark.
76. White, Lynn. (1967). The historical roots of our ecological crisis. Science 155(3767): 1203-1207.
77. Winett, Richard A. (1983). Behavioral science and energy conservation: conceptualizations, strategies, outcomes, energy policy applications. Journal of Economic Psychology 3(3-4): 203-229.
78. Wolfson, Ze’ev. (1993). The Caspian Sea: latest developments. Environmental Policy Review 7(Spring): 14-21.
79. Wolven, L.E. (1991). Life-styles and energy consumption. Energy 16(6): 959-963.
80. World Resources Institute. (1999a). Environmental policies for the new millennium: incentive-based approaches to environmental stewardship. Online.  Retrieved 26 April 2000: <http://www.wri.org/wri/incentives>.
81. World Resources Institute. (1999b). Research center: global trends. Online.  Retrieved 26 April 2000: <http://www.wri.org/wri/trends/>.
82. Worldwatch Institute. (2000). Information economy boom obscuring earth’s decline. Online.  Retrieved 9 February 2000: <http://www.worldwatch.org>.
83. Worster, Donald. (1993). The wealth of nature: environmental history and the ecological imagination. New York: Oxford University Press.

Bill Johnson Science Librarian Arizona State University East, Library Services, 7001 E. Williams Field Rd. Building 20 Mail Code 0180, Mesa AZ 85212, USA. TEL: 480-727-1160, FAX 480-727-1077